Sufism: Spirituality or Philosophy?

✒ Muhammad Fayas, Nadapuram

17 October 2026, 6 Jumada Al-Awwal 1448 AH

The quest for truth is an endeavor as old as the history of mankind itself. In any society, one can always find certain individuals who view seeking the truth as their primary goal. The arduous journeys of such people often turn out to be astonishing and stranger than fiction.

Imagine you are standing in front of a massive wall. Behind that wall lies a world filled with secrets, strange tales, and mysteries. As you remove each brick from that wall, you discover symbols and riddles. It feels as though you are trapped in an orbit from which escaping is difficult, or impossible. You feel that behind every word you read, there is another hidden meaning. Every sentence has two sides: an exterior aspect (Zahir) that everyone can see, and an interior aspect (Batin) that is understood by no one except the people of secrecy (Ahl al-Sirr).

We see people living among us, but they have their own special world, a different language, and secrets that no one else knows. They claim to possess knowledge that no one else has; because it is knowledge they receive from unseen matters (Ghaib), inspirations (Ilham), and visions (Ru'a).' This is the concept of the Sufis.

So who are the Sufis? Why and how did they reach this stage? Do they truly hold a secret that no one else can attain? What is the reality of Sufism?

Sufism in Islamic History

We are going to talk about one of the most peculiar sects that appeared in Islamic history: Sufism. Let us try to understand what Sufism as an idea is, where it came from, and why Tasawwuf (Sufism) was formed. What is meant by "Tariqah" (the path)? Why are there hundreds of Sufi Tariqahs around the world? What is the difference between these various groups? What is the stance of scholars towards Tasawwuf?

Before entering and attempting to describe the vast world of Sufism, one very important thing must be known first: Sufis have a specific and distinct style of speaking, which is completely different from what we are accustomed to. The books and speeches of Sufis are like books written in a secret code. Inside the books you will see outer meanings, but behind them lies another hidden inner meaning. They are always seen using words in which symbols (ramz) and allusions (isharat) are concealed.

The Style of Concealing Secrets

When asked why they do this, the response comes from their own words. In his poetry, Al-Hallaj, considered one of the most important poets and Sufis of the Abbasid era, said: "I conceal the pearls of my knowledge so that the uninformed do not fall into fitnah (trouble) upon seeing this knowledge. Before this, it was dedicated to Abul Hasan al-Husayn, and before him, it was bequeathed to Hasan."

Here, Hallaj admits to intentionally hiding the knowledge and "intellectual pearls" in his possession from the general public. From his perspective, if ordinary people were to learn of these matters in his possession, they would fall into turmoil.

Hallaj continues: "If I were to reveal the pearls of knowledge within me, it would be said to me, 'You are among those who worship idols.' Muslim men would make my blood halal (permissible to shed). They look upon the worst things they do as good." He is saying that if he were to openly express the matters in his heart, people would not understand them, and therefore, accusing him of kufr (disbelief), they would not hesitate to spill his blood.

Sufis primarily divide humans into two categories:

Ahl al-Zahir (People of External Knowledge): These are ordinary people who take words and laws in their literal, external sense. Sufis refer to them as Ahl al-Rusum, Ahl al-Awraq, or 'Ammmah (the common folk).

Ahl al-Batin (People of Internal Knowledge): These are the Sufis themselves, who claim the ability to understand the true hidden meanings lying behind words. They call themselves Ahl al-Haqiqah or Khassah (the elite/special group).

Concealing Knowledge

Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi was one of the most famous Sufi leaders and jurisprudence (fiqh) scholars of his time. It is recorded that he stated he wrote this knowledge down beautifully and then hid it in underground vaults. Junayd treated knowledge like a treasure. This matter had caused confusion among people for centuries; no one knew why Sufis concealed their knowledge in this manner.

Finally, Ibn Ata'illah al-Iskandari, one of the main pillars of the Shadhili Tariqah, was asked about this. Sufis used to call him Murshid al-Salikin (The Guide of the Seekers) and Qutb al-Arifin (The Pole of the Knowers), not just a knower, but the Qutb of the knowers! This is mentioned to understand his significance. When someone asked why Sufis use ambiguous terms and strange words, Ibn Ata' said: "We did so solely out of jealousy (exclusive love) and respect for this knowledge of ours, so that no one other than those belonging to our group would drink it (comprehend it).”

All these points mentioned are keys to understanding Sufism. That key is "secrecy and concealment."

Sufi: Crises in Etymology

First of all, what we need to know is that the word "Sufi" has absolutely no basis in the Arabic language. That is to know, there is no direct derivation or linguistic rule for it from any Arabic word. Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, a prominent scholar who lived during the fourth and fifth Islamic centuries and was referred to as Zayn al-Islam and Imam al-Sufiyyah, stated: "No derivation or rule from the Arabic language testifies to this name. It is clear that this is a laqab (title/honorific name)." These are the words of the Imam of the Sufis, not mine.

However, some Sufis attempt to provide an Arabic basis for this word "Sufi." Some said it comes from the word suf (wool/goat's wool). Others said it comes from safa' (purity). Some said it comes from suffah (referring to the Ahl al-Suffah). Some said it originated from saff, meaning a row in prayer. However, if each of these interpretations is examined, it will be seen that they are weak and unverified.

For example, to those who say it originates from suf (wool) because wearing woolen garments is a sign of asceticism (zuhd), the response is: It is not established that the Prophet (peace be upon him) made it a habit to wear woolen clothes, and that was not the prophetic tradition (Sunnah). The clothing the Prophet (peace be upon him) loved to wear most was hibarah, which was fundamentally made of cotton. Ummul Mu'minin Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) narrates: "Once, when the Prophet wore a woolen garment, sweat came from his body and the wool smelled, so he immediately took it off." Therefore, it is certain that the Sufis, who claim to be closest to the truth, would not name themselves after something the Prophet (peace be upon him) did not like on his sacred body and did not command the people to wear.

Now, those who say it came from Suffah are connecting themselves to the noble people known as Ahl al-Suffah who were inside the Prophet's mosque in Madinah Munawwarah. When Al-Masjid an-Nabawi was first built, the Suffah was a place in its northeastern corner. It was a space prepared to accommodate Muhajirun who lacked food and shelter, or for those who wished to stay close to the Prophet in Madinah but had no money or place to stay. They were generally very poor.

If you look at the life of Ahl al-Suffah, you will see that they had no special method of worship of their own; rather, they strictly followed the Prophet's Sunnah and methods of worship. They were not called "Sufis" during the time of the Prophet or the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (Khulafa ar-Rashidun).

Now, as for saying that Sufism comes from safa' (purity) or saff (row), those are poetic interpretations rather than linguistic ones, and there is no real evidence for them.

Sufis are a group with millions of followers and murids (disciples); yet, no one knows the exact origin of the word "Sufi"! Historical evidence indicates that this word was borrowed from outside the Arabic language and outside Islamic thought. It comes from two sources, each of which is more astonishing than the other:

First Origin: The Greek word "Sophia", which means "wisdom." Greek philosophers used this widely.

Second Origin: It is said to have originated from the Hebrew word "Sofi". In Jewish esoteric study circles (such as Kabbalah), this term was used to refer to a sheikh or guide.

Arabized Foreign Words

This is a fact established by linguistic scholars: the word "Sufi" only began to appear in the Arabic tongue after the massive translation movement that took place in the second century of Hijrah. The cultural environment and the influx of translations at that time caused many words from non-Arabic languages to be Arabized and become part of the Arabic lexicon. For example: falsafah (philosophy), musiqa (music), and asturlab (astrolabe) are not genuine Arabic words; rather, they are Arabized words. Therefore, the appearance of the word "Sufi" among them is nothing strange.

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, a polymath, philosopher, and traveler who was proficient in many languages, states: "In the Greek language, 'suf' means wisdom. From this came the name philosopher (failasuf). When a group in Islam drew close to their (the Greeks') views, they too were called by that name.”

That is to say, with the spread of the translation movements, Arabs and Muslims began giving foreign names to new phenomena and groups that previously had no names. However, what is suspicious is that this similarity was not limited to the name alone; rather, it extended to aqidah (creed/belief) as well. This belief was close to certain ancient Western philosophies, one of which is the Greek "Eleusinian Mysteries." In it, one can see Sufi-style rituals for worshipping the Greek goddess Demeter. It included music, dance, and ecstatic cries aimed at achieving union with the divine (ittihad).

This resemblance also continued with the concept of "Gnosticism." Gnosticism is something that bears a striking resemblance to Sufism in all aspects, for example, meditation on inner knowledge and complete detachment from the world. This is why some prominent Sufi scholars believe that "Sufism entered Islamic societies through Greece."

Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi mentions that he "saw Aristotle in a dream and asked him about the Qutbs (leaders) of Tasawwuf." Yes, the very same Aristotle of Greece! The Andalusian Abu al-Hasan al-Shushtari places Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle on the same pedestal as Al-Hallaj; he considers all of them as shaykhs of knowledge.
In short, the word "Sufi" was not merely borrowed from the Greek language; it arrived bundled with a philosophical package. It entered the Islamic-Arab public consciousness during the era of translations and openness to other cultures. It is certain that it did not exist during the Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) period, nor during the time of the Prophet ﷺ, the Companions (Sahabah), or the Successors (Tabi'un).
What happened back then was simply this: Throughout the vast Islamic empire, there were certain groups known as Zuhhad (those who renounced worldly life) or Ubbad (those deeply immersed in worship). Somehow, their zuhd and worship drifted somewhat away from the kind of zuhd encouraged by Islam, which we are familiar with. They began to resemble groups from other civilizations in their methods of worship and asceticism. Consequently, they were given the exact same name by which those groups in other civilizations were called. Thus, instead of names like Zuhhad and Ubbad, they came to be known as "Sufis.”

Diversity and Disputes in Definitions

The very definition of Sufism is a matter of dispute. This dispute exists not only among scholars who have criticized Tasawwuf from the outside, but right among Sufi scholars and leaders themselves. The Sufis have never agreed upon a single definition for Tasawwuf; each of them has provided a different definition according to their own approach.

When the prominent Sufi figure Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi was asked about Tasawwuf, he said: "It is for you to be with Allah without any attachment." In another place, he said: "Tasawwuf is a covenant without peace." This very same Al-Junayd gave a third definition, saying: "It is purifying the heart from conforming with creation and detaching oneself from natural traits." Al-Junayd alone gave multiple definitions for Sufism.

Three definitions!
Let us leave Al-Junayd and move to another prominent figure of Tasawwuf. Let us listen to the words of Samnun ibn Hamza, a leading Sufi of the third century of Hijrah. He defines Tasawwuf as follows: "It is that you do not own anything, and no one owns you." Another definition of his is: "Tasawwuf is the knowledge through which one understands how the perfected people among mankind ascend to the heights on the steps of their felicity."

The most intriguing thing is that Abu Nasr al-Sarraj al-Tusi, the author of Kitab al-Luma', the most important encyclopedia in the history of Tasawwuf which details the history and principles of the Sufis stated: "The definitions of Tasawwuf number more than a hundred.”

According to the executed Suhrawardi, they number more than a thousand. There are even those who said they exceed two thousand. All of these are contradictory definitions.

Here, some might ask: "Isn't this a good thing? Isn't diversity a good and healthy thing?" In reality, in the case of Sufism, this diversity is not a healthy thing.

Every shaykh defines Tasawwuf from his own personal experience or state, which is why this diversity arises. This leads us to a question:
"Does Tasawwuf have an objective definition, or is Tasawwuf merely a personal state that can be defined differently by each individual? Is this a school of thought (doctrine) with clear principles, or is it based on emotions and personal spiritual experiences (adhwaq)?”

The Origin and Evolution of Sufism
In reality, to answer these questions, we are compelled to examine the origin of Sufism. The word "Sufi" began to spread in the second century of Hijrah. Some Sufis state that this title (laqab) was first given to Hasan al-Basri, a prominent scholar of Islam and one of the early judges (qadis). He was the most prominent scholar of the first and second centuries of Hijrah. Other Sufis state that this name was first given to another major scholar of that time, Abu Hisham al-Kufi. Still others believe that the word spread with the "revolt of the Zuhhad" (ascetics) that took place in Kufa and Alexandria. That is a long story.

However, Ibn al-Jawzi states in his monumental work Talbis Iblis (The Devil's Deception): "The beginning of Sufism stemmed from asceticism (zuhd) and worship; later, Iblis (Satan) entered into it and led them astray. With the passing of each century, the deviations among the Sufis kept increasing. Thus, strange ideas appeared among the Sufis, which were sufficient to transform Sufism from being a group within religion into another religion running parallel to religion.”

Ibn al-Jawzi (may Allah have mercy on him) says: "Tasawwuf went through various stages. It began as simple asceticism (zuhd), but over time, this zuhd expanded and took on new forms in the hands of people who came from different backgrounds and cultures. Some of them were influenced by Greek philosophy; many were influenced by Hinduism and Magian (Persian Zoroastrian) religion. Others brought concepts like Christian monasticism (rahbaniyyah) from Christianity. Each of them began to draw ideas suitable for their experienced spiritual states from various beliefs and cultures.”

The problem was not merely the diversity of the sources from which the Sufis borrowed. It was not just that each Sufi brought different ideas, but rather the mutual contradiction of their principles. One Sufi shaykh would say: "Tasawwuf is the abandonment of all worldly fortunes of the body." Meanwhile, another shaykh would say: "A Sufi is one from whose heart nothing is ever forgotten." So, who among them is the true Sufi? These matters began to raise deeper questions: What is this Tasawwuf? Is it a secret worship, a philosophical thought, a psychological state, or a path (tariqah)? In reality, the Sufis do not agree on any one of these. Whichever of these you feel it is, you can just settle for that!

(To be continued)