Sufi Parallels Across Cultures

✒ Muhammad Fayas, Nadapuram

17 October 2026, 6 Jumada Al-Awwal 1448 AH

(Sufism: Spirituality or Philosophy? - Part 3)

Sufi-style rituals and beliefs can also be seen among the Hindus. Examples include 'Wahdat al-Wujud' (the thought that the entire universe is God), 'Khalwah' (seclusion/isolation), silence, fasting, and remaining awake at night. They also used to practice special breathing techniques, meditation gatherings, and concentrating their sight and thoughts on a single point; these too are similar to Sufi 'spiritual exercises'.

The Persian Empire, located on the eastern border of the Arabian Peninsula, was a land possessing an ancient culture and beliefs. Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism existed there (Manichaeism is an ancient religion founded in the third century by the 'Persian prophet' Mani). The core of this belief is the idea of a constant struggle between light (good) and darkness (evil). This religion is a syncretism of Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. The foundation of all these religions is the concept of 'Wahdat al-Wujud'; they speak of light and darkness, that is, the very same concept we later observe among the Sufis.

When the Greeks marched eastward, they carried their philosophy with them, and those in the East were introduced to it for the first time. It speaks of the 'Eleusinian Mysteries' we mentioned earlier. Meditation, mysteries, and soothsaying (kahanah) were blended together in it.

Later, when Christianity was adopted and became a prominent religion among the Greeks, these Eleusinian ideas transformed into 'Gnosticism'. A prominent figure in Gnosticism was called an 'Arif'. Much like 'Arif Billah' among the Sufis!

Strangely enough, these Sufi ideas can also be found among the Jews. The Jews have a special mysticism of their own, which they call 'Tanbiyum' (prophecy). One who reaches a high level in it is called a 'Nabi' (prophet). The greatest sage among the Jews is called 'Suf' or 'Sufi'.

In short, this is it: long before the commissioning of the Prophet, Sufism existed among the Arabs, Indians, Persians, and Greeks, as well as within the Jewish and Christian religions; it did not originate from an Islamic source in any way.

Reactions of Early Scholars

Examining the history of Sufism in the Islamic world reveals that its beginnings were obscure. It is not precisely clear who first initiated Tasawwuf or when it began. When Imam al-Shafi'i رَحِمَهُ اللهُ entered Egypt in AH 199, he observed a practice called “Sama'' taking place there. By this, the Egyptians meant the songs sung and spiritual dances performed during their Sufi gatherings.

Imam al-Shafi'i رَحِمَهُ اللهُ viewed this as a bid'ah (blameworthy innovation); although it existed in Baghdad, he did not think it had spread to this extent in Egypt. He issued a warning against it. He stated: "If a person associates with Sufists for forty days, his intellect will never return to him thereafter."

Even before the end of the second Islamic century, scholars had begun calling them 'Mutasawwifah' or 'Zindiqah' (deviants/heretics).

Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal رَحِمَهُ اللهُ, a contemporary of Imam al-Shafi'i رَحِمَهُ اللهُ who spent the major part of his life in Baghdad, can be seen to have warned against sitting in 'Sama'' and 'Tasawwuf' groups, as well as against reading their books. He considered them to be books of bid'ah (innovation) and deviation. When asked about the books of Harith al-Muhasibi, who was the most prominent Sufi of his time, Imam Ahmad stated: "Beware of them; these books are books of bid'ah and deviation." This was at the beginning of the third Islamic century.

The Public Proclamation of Sufism and the Execution of Hallaj

During this period, specifically in the second and third Islamic centuries, the presence of Sufism was not yet very strong. However, towards the end of the third century, Tasawwuf began to appear openly and clearly. Mutasawwifah (Sufists) began to publicly proclaim their ideas; strange opinions that were previously hidden started to be revealed in front of everyone.

An interesting thing: if we examine the leaders of Tasawwuf in the third and fourth Islamic centuries, we find that the vast majority of them were Persians. It can be said that there were virtually no Arabs among them. The most famous Sufi of that time was Abu Yazid al-Bistami. The followers of Tasawwuf back then wore predominantly Shia attire, because the regions where it had spread were primarily Iran and Iraq. Just as the Shias had a presence in politics, Sufism also began to have a presence in politics.

Thus, when reaching the end of the third Islamic century, with the arrival of Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj during the Abbasid Caliphate, Tasawwuf reached its peak. He publicly proclaimed his beliefs. Many scholars and people in the Abbasid administration realized that this was a claim to 'uluhiyyah' (divinity). This prompted scholars to pronounce kufr (disbelief) upon him. Thus, Hallaj was sentenced to capital punishment and was executed. This was in AH 309.

Hallaj was executed, and his body was strung up on a bridge in Baghdad to serve as a lesson for others. However, there were plenty of people like him. Hallaj was not the sole Sufi within the Abbasid administration. Therefore, Sufism did not come to an end because the government killed him. When other Sufis of that era witnessed what happened to Hallaj, fearing they would meet the exact same fate, they decided to completely conceal their beliefs.

(To be continued)